Question one
(a)
Ideally, slaves shared similar experiences and difficulties irrespective of the time period or geographical location. However, the process of an individual becoming a slave differed from one region to another or one period to another. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, most people became slaves in the United States after being kidnapped and traded by British privateers as laborers. Coherently, in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, after the collapse of the transatlantic trade, most of the slaves in the United States became slaves from birth. This is because slaves were required to procreate to ensure the sustainability of slaves in the future. Additionally, one would become a slave after being sold to slavery during this period.
In contrast, during Roman rule, Romans enslaved most of the people after being captured in war. As the Roman Empire expanded, they often captured slaves from the new lands they conquered. Other slaves were bought from slave traders and pirates who captured people from foreign lands and brought them to Rome (Muldoon, 2005). Similarly, in medieval Europe, an individual could have become a slave after being captured as a prisoner or spared during war.
(b)
Essentially, different communities perceived slave freedom differently. This is because there are specific societies that accorded freedom to slaves while others did not. For instance, the Roman slaves were accorded their freedoms in various forms- there are those who were issued outright freedom because of their “good behaviour” while others were required to “purchase” their freedom. This is similar to the eighteen century United States where slaves were allowed to purchase their freedom and their families. After receiving their freedom, most slaves, especially African descendants, were discriminated against and hindered from accessing equal opportunities within their societies. More so, most of the freed slaves were attacked or captured and sold again to slavery.
(c)
In different cultures, there were differences in how slaves were treated and categorized. In the Caribbean cultures during the seventh, eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, slaves were groups into domestic, skilled and field slaves, although there were often important subdivisions within each category. There was a hierarchy among the slaves; those in charge of specific areas who were skilled or worked as head domestics were the elite slaves, at least from the point of view of the slave masters (Heuman & Walvin, 2003). It was the slave owners who determined the rankings among slaves and who had the power to promote or demote slaves from one group to another. Moreover, status was often related to color. Slaves of the mixed-race did not generally work in the lowest status jobs in the field. Similarly, in the United States, slaves were categorized into groups and skills. The slaves trusted with their owners were charged with overseeing other slaves in the plantation, dubbed the “driver.” They received much of their training and skills from the white owners. Such patterns of hierarch were present in other cultures across the globe.
(d)
Fundamentally, the American and non-American societies acknowledged/respected the marriages of slaves and the family ties between slave parents and their children. However, in the United States, the longevity of marriages was dictated or determined by the decisions of the slave owners. For instance, chapter six of Stowe (1995) highlight the challenges of a slave who was separated from his after the plantation owner who asserted that “I forgot who I was; he says, to teach me that I am only a nigger!.” Coherently, the Romans did not accord slaves rights to marry, but they were granted permission to start a family unit. This was to minimize the ability of men to start a rebellion against their masters. Overall, slave marriages were not respected in most of the societies.
(e)
In the African slavery system, children born from slave parents were not perceived as slaves. Their children were “born free,” which implies that slavery was not heritable in Africa. On the contrary, children born in the Americas under enslaved parents were perceived as slaves. Furthermore, children born of a slave woman and her owner were viewed as slaves in the United States. The legal doctrine of partus sequitur ventrem introduced in 1662 mandated that all children born from slave mothers were chattel (slave) regardless of their father’s skin color. Similarly, practices were observed during the medieval Christian Iberia where the offspring of enslaved women were perceived as slaves- however, they were not subjected to corporal punishment. Therefore, it can be observed that children born under different slavery systems in various parts of the world were viewed as slaves, specifically those born of a slave woman.
(f)
Generally, slaves were not required to move or travel without the consent or companionship of their owners. In the Americas, slaves working in rural areas were confirned to plantations, and those in urban areas were limited to their living quarters. Recent data indicate that most urban slaves had more freedom of movement than those in the rural plantations. In contrast, Lee (2016) notes that male slaves were accorded limited freedom that included freedom of movement in the Muslim world. Moreover, there were numerous restrictions imposed on slaves under both the American and foreign systems. For instance, slaves were not required to own properties and hold any contractual agreement. Additionally, slaves were stripped of all legal rights accorded to private citizens. Furthermore, slaves were not required to decide about their individual lives or choices without the consent or approval of their owners or masters.
(g)
In most societies, slaves did not receive any form of legal protection against extreme violence from their owners. This meant that the slave owners could beat and torture their slaves without any legal consequences forthcoming. Slaves were often beaten and toured by their masters and owner if they resisted oppression or misstatement. Those who were captured after failed escape attempts were whipped, branded, or limbs amputated, among other horrible acts. For instance, in Rome, slaves caught trying to escape burnt with iron, executed through crucifixion or whipped severely (Wickham, J. (2014). However, it is worth noting that individuals who intentionally injured slaves were liable by law to compensate the slave owner since they were treated as property. Coherently, in the Americas, slave testimonies were inadmissible in court, especially against a white person. Mush of the legal testimonies was extracted at will, torture or coercion depending on the interest of their masters or the owners.
Question two
(a)
Tom’s third owner, Augustine St. Clare, is an interesting and odd figure depicted by the amalgam of characteristics outlined by Stowe (1995). Augustine St. Clar is viewed as a “byronic” hero, a reluctant materialist with positive thoughts of ending slavery. From a reader’s perspective, Augustine St. Clare appears to have an unclear contradiction regarding his character. This is because he appears to be philosophical and morally rejects the slavery system. Still, at the same time benefits from it because he owns slaves- he is able to identify the ills of slavery as imposed on the blacks. Furthermore, his contradiction stems from the fact that he does not mistreat or torture his slaves compared to other whites slave owners. Yet, he does not feel he is morally responsible for participating in the abolitionist course propagated by the majority of the Christian.
“St. Clare had never pretended to govern himself by any religious obligation; and a certain fineness of nature gave him such an instinctive view of the extent of the requirements of Christianity, that he shrank, by anticipation, from what he felt would be the exactions of his own conscience, if he once did resolve to assume them. For, so inconsistent is human nature, especially in the ideal, that not to undertake a thing at all seems better than to undertake and come short” (Stoke, 1995).
Augustine’s inability to be actively pro-abolitionist is largely impacted by the pro-slavery convictions of his twin both Alfred. The latter affirms that one person’s interest cannot be significant in ending slavery, especially in the South. Such a mentality hinders Augustine from pursuing his interest to fight for the freedoms of the slave. However, his demise “leaves” the audience with inconclusive remarks reading his promise to Eva geared towards fighting for the freedoms of the slaves.
In contrast, Marie is the wife of Augustine and the mother of Eva. She is depicted as a selfish hypochondriac and hard-hearted lady who is incapable of showing sympathy to black slaves. Interestingly, despite her reluctance towards the blacks, she appears not to be “extreme” as opposed to white men, as depicted her resentment for ending the slaves for beating and public whippings. Nevertheless, she is a demanding and harsh wife of Augustine. This is evident by the fact that after the death of her husband and daughter, Marie was unable to uphold their wish to free Uncle Tom, who is sold in the public auction block. Her fear of being labeled as a sympathizer for the abolitionists was overwhelmed by the need to “do the right thing” for the slaves
(b)
In recorded history, political figures have similar traits with characters portrayed in Uncle Tom’s Cabin by Harriet Beecher Stowe. For instance, the former president of the united states, James Madison, shares similar traits with Augustine St. Clare. Both had a similar interest in freeing the slaves but still maintained slaves in their farms. James Madison asserted his reason for maintaining slaves was that the society would not accept them in deeply prejudiced society; thus, the slaves were “better of” on his farm. McAllister (2021) noted that similar to Augustine St. Clare’s instruction to Marie, James Madison had requested his wife not to mistreat or sell slaves without their consent.
“None of them should be sold without his or her consent or in the case of their misbehaviour; except that infant children may be sold with their Parent who consents for them to be sold with him or her, and who consents…” (McAllister, 2021).
Such remarks are consistent with the attitude and perceptive of Augustine, who was a pro-abolitionist, and a slave owner.
Moreover, Marie’s narcissistic behavior mirrors or resembles the New Orleans socialize Marie LaLaurie, who owned slaves in the first of the nineteenth century. The latter was incapable of human sympathy like Mare. Jones-Rogers, S. E. (2019) states that Marie LaLaurie “was torturing and had even murdered some of the slaves she owned.” Marie LaLaurie had similar emotional and psychological traits with Marie- loathing and hating slaves- however, the latter did not torture or kill slaves. In most cultures, the justification for slavery had varying explanations. During the transatlantic trade, the Europeans cited racial distinction as a justification for slavery. Conversely, in most states in the South, slavery was justified as an essential component for driving and growing the economy.
Question three
(a)
Overall, Shelby was a conscientious and kind heart slave owner. He allowed his slave to reside on his farm without much intimidation and discrimination despite Tom and Eliza’s son, Harry, fell into debt. Nevertheless, Shelby treated his slave, whom he referred t as a servant, in a human manner to an extent most of the slaves declined to receive their freedom paper. “We don’t want to be any freer than we are,’ they said. ‘We have always had all we wanted. We don’t want to leave the old place, and young mas’r and missis, and the rest” (Stoke, 1995). In contrast, the Legree estates were plantation farms owned by Simon Legree. The latter is perceived as the antagonist in the novel. He is determined to “break” Tom, but this results in his death after being flogged. The character of Simon Legree is characterized by brutality, which he levels towards the slave in his estates. Unlike Shelby, Legree does not show any form of sympathy or humanity towards his slaves. Therefore, the contrasting views of slaves between Shelby, St. Clare and Legree estates in Stowe’s book show that kindness is sufficient protection for slaves. This is because the survivability and safety of slaves were predominantly dependent on the goodwill and affection of the owners.
(b)
Slaves were deemed as a second-class citizen with no human rights. Slaves experienced brutality, discrimination, and various forms of abuse. More so, a relatively large number of slaves were killed or succumbed to injustices sustained by their owners or handlers- who were predominantly white. There are real accounts of ex-slaves who have highlighted how life was for slaves in the United States during the nineteenth century. In 1936, an eight-year-old Aunt Sally Smith “Rodeshi” provided a detailed account of how American slaves were treated under slavery. She stated how she was kidnapped as a child in Benin and shipped to America. She described being whipped, beaten, and witnessing killings by white slave owners (Durkin, 2019). At fourteen years, Roshedi was married to a sharecropper as a child bright where she was raped and subjected to other abuses by her husband frequently. Similar experiences were observed with slaves from other parts of the United States.
In 1937, David Hoggard of the Virginia Writers Project interviewed Marriah Hines, who provided a detailed account of how the slave masters- their adversaries treated the black slaves. She mentioned that his master James Pressman was sympathetic and human in treating his slave. However, Marriah Hines cited Pressman’s friends, and neighbors did not approve of the “tender” treatment he accorded his slaves.
“I lived with good people, my white folks treated us good. There was plenty of ’em that didn’t fare as we did. Some of the poor folks almost starved to death. Why the way their masters treated them was scandalous, treated them like cats and dogs” (Virginia, W. (1946).
The description of the ex-slave highlights the challenges experienced by slaves in the white-owned plantations.
Question Four
(a)
In real life, domestic trade was conducted like a typical market environment where slaves were traded based on their values and anticipated plantation output. The prices of slaves was directly linked to the economic value of the farm produce. This means that when economic output from farms increased, the prices of slaves increased significantly. In contrast, to Stowe’s novel, the domestic slave trade was conducted based on mutual agreement between slave owners. Specific factors such as debt, indiscipline slaves, or intuitive needs catalyzed much of the domestic trade. More so, Stowe demonstrates that slaves could be sold for any reason to any reasonable financial buyer.
(b)
In her book, Stowe blames large farm owners as the main cause of human trafficking in the United States during the slavery period. Their demand for cheap slave labor increased the population of human trafficking for the slave trade. Stowe’s depiction of large farm owners as the individuals responsible for human traffic and slavery is current. This is consistent with the findings of a study conducted by Ager, Boustan & Eriksson (2021). The researchers observed twenty-one percent of the southerners in the mid-1800s owned at least one slave while less than one percent owned more than fifty slaves. Similarly, Morel (2020) estimate that a quarter of the southern population owned slaves. Most of the slave owners were wealthy or rich landowners with significant interest in the plantation business, as correctly depicted by Stowe (1995).
(c)
During the slavery period in the United States slavers were “stored” in large warehouses before they were traded or sold to new white owners. Warehouses were critical to the city’s slave trade. Slave traders confined enslaved people in warehouses until they could be sold during slave auctions. While in the warehouse, the slaves were subjected to an inhuman environment. Furthermore, some traders and consumers branded slaves in various parts of the body for branding purposes. Additionally, slaves were subjected to hostilities with traders and customers alike, such as being beaten, separated from family, and physical abuse, among others.
(d)
There are numerous of the slave trade, which stowed found to be the most horrible. First, she loathed the behavior of the slave owners towards facilitating families for financial gains. Stowe perceived a horrible act, so parents or children could be traded or sold to other plantations without their consent. Secondly, Stowe found horrific practices of farm owners to mistreat with extreme brutality slave. Essentially, slaves could be flogged, staved, and killed without “no questioned asked.” The above-mentioned aspects were similar to what real-life abolitionists considered to be the worst on the slave trade. Notably, the abolitionists advocated for the separation of families through the slave trade and gross violation of the fundamental rights of slaves.
Question five
(a)
There were no significant white southerners who opposed slavery in the South. A majority of the whites who did were small-scale farmers, but still, they did not offer significant support to charge the course or state of slavery. Those who sympathized with the plight of the enslaved black tried to provide human conditions with less mistreatment as a means to show/ demonstrate defiance against slavery. Much of the abolishment in the southern occurred after the end of the cities were and the signing of the Emancipation Proclamation to end slavery in the United States. However, it took several decades before slavery completely ended in the South due to the introduction of Jim Craw laws that segregated and discriminated against the Blacks who were freed in various parts of the United States.
(b)
According to Augustine, slavery is not something natural; that is, it did not belong to the original state of the human being. It is a consequence of iniquity, adversity and particularly of war. He claims that slavery is the by-product of the white man’s curse due to his sin. Essentially, the white man is cursed to bondage others, which they find inferior to them under the system of slavery. Moreover, Augustine cites the need to exploit and “take advantage of” as the main drivers of slavery that facilitate the perpetuation or continuation of slavery.
Moreover, the economic benefits of slavery acted as a key driver for the continued enslavement of the blacks in the United States. Additionally, the culture of enslaved people had taken root in the United States to a point it was difficult to abolish slavery; thus, it enhanced its continuity for centuries. It was considered a way of life, especially in the south region of America.
(c)
In the novel, Augustine and Shelby are among some slave owners who opposed the culture of slavery while still owning slaves. Moreover, Augustine and others like him in the novel did not do anything substantial to end slavery. Specifically, they felt that their effort to combat slavery was not sufficient to make any significant impact in the long run. Furthermore, Augustine and others felt the need to keep slaves on their farm with a more human approach than giving them freedom for fear of being mistreated or harmed. Stowe appears to acknowledge the double standard position of Augustine and others regarding being slaves owners who own slaves.
Question six
(a)
The fundamental objective of the northern whites was not to end slavery but to sustain the Northern Union. However, the issue of slavery as an “institution” was not sufficiently accepted by a majority of whites residing in the modern states. Thus, to unify the Union, the whites in the north sort to end slavery in the United States in order to galvanize support for the unification and cohesion of the northern states. This view slightly contradicts Stowe’s view that slavery ended in the North solely on moral grounds.
The opposition to slavery was not the same as racial equality. This is because the northern whites questioned the benevolence of slavery; however, they felt superior to the blacks. Thus, implying that the blacks could not receive equal treatment or respect as whites.
(b)
Stowe uses the character of Ophelia to illustrate how the challenge of slavery cannot be solely associated with the whites residing in the South. The White northerners catalyze slavery prejudice by extraditing slaves to the South under the Fugitive Slave Act. Thus, Augustine’s view of Northerners like his cousin is that they advocate for slavery while harboring deep-rooted prejudice against blacks.
(c)
The fundamental difference between blacks in the South and those in the North is that the latter were not subjected to brutal slavery practices. Blacks in the North were allowed to own properties and run businesses. However, they were still viewed as a second-class citizen and not equal to the whites. Despite the subtle discriminatory practices in the North, most blacks and former slaves were appreciative of the freedom accorded to them in the Union States.
(d)
A “colonization scheme” can be viewed as the plan by the white to “free but control” the black population in America. In real life, most blacks viewed the “colonization scheme” as partial freedom, which was not different from other discriminatory practices like slavery despite the fact it allowed blacks to live free and won properties. However, enslaved blacks such as black George Harris in Stowe’s novel viewed the “colonization scheme” as means to escape the harsh realities of slavery in the South.
Question seven
(a)
Most slaves did not run away because they did not have the necessary knowledge or resources to facilitate a successful escape. Furthermore, a majority of slaves had established large families. Hence it could have been difficult to escape without receding on the repercussions to befall “people left behind.”
Based on the novel, most of the slaves were afraid of the repercussion of escaping, especially after observing what befall escapees who are captured and returned to the plantation. Furthermore, there was a lack of safety and tolerance in most art of America for slaves who were suspected of escaping from their owners. Essentially, blacks who failed to have proper documentation were subjected to mistreatment and kidnappings to be sold to slavery, which hindered most slaves from escaping. Most of the captured slaves were typically subjected to harsh punishment or death, which hindered most slaves from participating in escapes. Such cruelty is observable in Legree estates. Coherently, the slaves who experienced humane treatment from their masters, such as Shelby and Augustine, typically did not consider escaping since they felt more secure and protected in their owner’s farms.
(b)
As the population of the black on the plantation increased, there was fear among the white slave owners for an increased probability of rebellion. This led to the formulation of restrictive laws dubbed “slave codes” that aimed to curb aggressive behavior that may arise from slaves. The slave codes gave the white slave owners control over the lives of slaves and permitted the use of corporal punishments such as torture, branding, maiming, and whipping to ensure control and submission. Interestingly, the slave codes did not permit murder; however, most of the white slave owners killed their slaves no not action was taken.
(c)
The rebellion activities started by slaves or former slaves within and outside the United States played a significant role in increasing the paranoia of white to enforce the slave codes. For instance, in Haiti, slaves galvanized and rebelled against the French and took control of the plantation and country. Thus, leading to the freedom of enslaved blacks in Haiti who proceeded to form a new republic. Similarly, Denmark Vesey’s rebellious rumors could have had a negative implication on the wealth and economy of the South. The latter had planned to kill whites and destroy their property to revolt against the brutality leveled against blacks in the United States, especially the South. The whites, especially those residing in confederate states, feared slave rebellions because it could have led to the loss of livelihood and death in the long run.
Question eight
(a)
The Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 was the forerunner of the 1793 civil statute that guaranteed the capture and extradition of escaped slaves. The Fugitive Slave Act was much “harsh” than the previous acts because it accorded severer punishments on the slaves who escaped and those who facilitated or aided their escape, such as organizers of the underground railway. In retrospect, the earlier Fugitive Slave Law was introduced to reinforce slave owners regarding the turn of slaves in the Union. Thus, the inspiration of the Fugitive Slave Law was to provide the federal government with powers through the provision of federal funds to judges to prosecute slaveholders. Fundamentally, the 1850 Fugitive Slave Law was more draconic and punitive compared to the earlier Fugitive Slave Act.
(b)
There were numerous politicians and businessmen from the North who sported the idea of slaveholding. For instance, Senator Stephen Douglas supported the slave owners to necessitate the southerners to join the Union. Slaves were viewed as properties; therefore, Senator Stephen Douglas and like-minded politicians from the North opted to safeguard slaveholders’ “properties” (slaves) as a long-term plan to unify all the states.
In Stowe’s novel, Miss Ophelia can be assumed to have similar traits with Senator Stephen Douglas. Miss Ophelia is from the North, which means she has a sympathetic attitude towards the slave, which means she opposes slavery in the abstract. Like Senator Stephen Douglas, Miss Ophelia has never owned slaves, but she develops support for slave owners in the South. However, she finds actual slaves somewhat distasteful and harbors considerable prejudice against them. Overall, Miss Ophelia’s support for slave owners stems from the fact that slavery she does not like blacks, and she feels like they are not people (more like second-class citizens).
Question Nine
(a)
Does Stowe does not agree slavery in America was a democratic expression of popular will. The view is evident by the fact that most of the white Americans were not slaves holders. Still, a relatively large population of slave owners did not appreciate slavery in the South. She views the association of slavery as democratic expression lensed from the minority few who benefited significantly from slavery, specifically the elite in the society. Moreover, Christianity was the mainstream religion used by the slave owners to sustain slavery in the United States. Stowe blames Christianity for the continued existence of slaves in America. Uncle Tom was mistreated and killed by whites who shared the same faith with him. Slave owners would use the BibleBible to subjugate blacks to their will as dictated by various bible verses.
“Don’t quote Bible at me that way, Mr. Wilson,” said George, with a flashing eye, “don’t! for my wife is a Christian, and I mean to be, if ever I get to where I can; but to quote BibleBible to a fellow in my circumstances, is enough to make him give it up altogether. I appeal to God Almighty;—I’m willing to go with the case to Him, and ask Him if I do wrong to seek my freedom” (Stowe, 1995).
(b)
Historically, the expression, “slavery in America was a democratic expression of popular will,” would be applicable or true. Essentially, the whites had the right to own slaves if they could afford them. More so, blacks were viewed as properties; hence they could be bought, sold or owned by any white who had the financial resources and land. As such, it was a popular will for any whites across America to practice slavery if they wanted to as supported by principles of democracy regarding freedom to own properties (slaves).
The North was significantly involved with the slavery activities in the South. Much of the involvement was attributed to the political influences emanating from slavery relates issues. The North wanted to minimize the influence of the South for political advantage at a federal level by advocating for anti-slavery laws aimed at weakening the confederate states in the South to form a unified state of America. Nevertheless, there were commonalities between whites in the North on those in the South. Both the North and the South had a similar attitude towards the enslaved blacks. Despite their indifference on the issue of slavery, both the northerners and southerners assumed or viewed blacks as an inferior race that should be governed or controlled by whites.
Reference
Heuman, G. J., & Walvin, J. (Eds.). (2003). The slavery reader (Vol. 1). Psychology Press.
Lee, A. A. (2016). Chapter Title: Recovering Biographies of Enslaved Africans In Nineteenth-Century Iran.
McAllister, C. (2021). A Contextual Contradiction: James Madison and Slavery in Revolutionary Virginia and Retirement. The Virginia Tech Undergraduate Historical Review, 10.
Morel, L. E. (2020). A Review of the 1619 Project Curriculum. Backgrounder. No. 3570. Heritage Foundation.
Muldoon Jr, J. P. (2005). The diplomacy of business. Diplomacy and Statecraft, 16(2), 341-359.
Stowe, H. B. (1995). Uncle Tom’s cabin, or, Life among the lowly/by Harriet Beecher Stowe. Oxford Text Archive Core Collection.
Virginia, W. (1946). American Guide Series. New York: Oxford Uni.
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